Quantum Chromodynamics

 

Introduction:

Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) is a branch of physics that deals with the study of subatomic particles, specifically the building blocks of protons and neutrons called quarks and gluons. In layman language, QCD is the theory of the strong nuclear force, which holds atomic nuclei together and governs the interactions between quarks and gluons.

QCD describes how quarks and gluons interact with each other and how they are confined within subatomic particles due to the strong nuclear force. The theory predicts that quarks and gluons cannot exist freely, but are always bound together in combinations that form particles such as protons and neutrons.

Overall, QCD is a fundamental theory of physics that helps us understand the structure of matter at its most basic level and how the strong nuclear force shapes the universe around us.

 

You may be wondering what are quarks and gluons, so here you go

·      A quark is a subatomic particle and a fundamental building block of matter, along with leptons. Quarks are classified as elementary particles, which means they cannot be broken down into smaller particles. Quarks are found inside subatomic particles called hadrons, which include protons and neutrons. They have an electric charge and come in six different "flavors": up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom. Up and down quarks are the lightest and most common, and they make up the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Quarks have a property known as "color charge," which is not related to visible color but rather a quantum property of the strong nuclear force. Quarks interact with each other through the exchange of gluons, which are particles that carry the strong nuclear force.

 

·      Gluons are subatomic particles that are responsible for mediating the strong nuclear force between quarks. They are the exchange particles of the strong force and are similar in function to the photon, which mediates the electromagnetic force.

Gluons are classified as elementary particles, which means they cannot be broken down into smaller particles. They carry a property called "color charge," which is related to the quantum property of the strong nuclear force that binds quarks together inside hadrons. The three types of color charge are red, green, and blue, and their corresponding anti-colors are anti-red, anti-green, and anti-blue.

 

·      Leptons are a family of subatomic particles that are fundamental building blocks of matter, just like quarks. Leptons do not experience the strong nuclear force that binds quarks together inside protons and neutrons, but they do interact via other fundamental forces such as the weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force. There are six known types of leptons: the electron, muon, and tau particles, along with their corresponding neutrinos. The electron is the most well-known of the leptons and is responsible for the chemical behavior of atoms, while the muon and tau particles are heavier versions of the electron.

 

·      Hadrons are a family of subatomic particles that are composed of quarks, which are held together by the strong nuclear force mediated by gluons. The most common hadrons are protons and neutrons, which are the building blocks of atomic nuclei.

Hadrons are classified into two types: baryons and mesons. Baryons are made up of three quarks and include protons and neutrons, while mesons are made up of one quark and one antiquark. The properties of hadrons are determined by the properties of their constituent quarks, such as their electric charge, spin, and flavor.

 

 

Properties:

1)     Color confinement- The principle of color confinement states that quarks and gluons cannot exist as free, isolated particles, but must always be confined within color-neutral combinations, such as protons and neutrons. The reason for this confinement is that the strong nuclear force that binds quarks together becomes stronger as the distance between them increases.

The principle of color confinement is an important aspect of the theory of QCD, as it explains why quarks and gluons cannot be observed as free particles in nature, and why hadrons such as protons and neutrons are the only observable objects made up of quarks. The principle has been extensively tested in experiments, and is considered to be a fundamental feature of the strong nuclear force.

 

2)     Asymptotic freedom- One of the key features of QCD is that the strength of the strong nuclear force increases as the distance between quarks and gluons decreases. This property, known as "asymptotic freedom," is what allows scientists to study the interactions between quarks and gluons at very high energies and temperatures, such as those found in particle accelerators and the early universe.

 

3)     Chiral symmetry breaking- It is the fundamental theory that describes the strong nuclear force that binds quarks together inside hadrons. Chiral symmetry is a symmetry that relates left-handed and right-handed particles, and is a fundamental property of the Standard Model of particle physics.

In QCD, chiral symmetry breaking occurs when the strong nuclear force interactions between quarks and gluons cause the formation of a vacuum that is not chiral symmetric. This means that the interactions between the quarks and gluons result in a state where left-handed and right-handed particles are no longer interchangeable, and there is a preferred direction of spin.

 

History and terminology:

The history of Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) begins in the early 1960s, when physicists were attempting to understand the strong nuclear force that binds protons and neutrons together inside the atomic nucleus. In the late 1960s, physicists began to develop a theory called Quantum Chromodynamics, which is a quantum field theory that describes the strong nuclear force as being mediated by particles called gluons. The theory was developed by a number of physicists, including Murray Gell-Mann, Harald Fritzsch, Heinrich Leutwyler, David Gross, and Frank Wilczek, among others. In the early 1970s, experiments at high-energy particle accelerators confirmed the existence of quarks and gluons, and provided evidence for the predictions of QCD. However, the theory was still incomplete, as it did not explain why quarks and gluons are always confined within hadrons. Today, QCD is a well-established theory that describes the strong nuclear force and the behavior of quarks and gluons within hadrons. It is a fundamental theory of particle physics, and has been extensively tested in experiments at particle accelerators around the world.

 

QCD is called chromodynamics because it describes the strong nuclear force as being mediated by particles called gluons, which carry a "color charge." The term "chromo" comes from the Greek word "chroma," which means color. In QCD, quarks are also said to carry a color charge, which can be thought of as a property similar to electric charge. However, unlike electric charge, which comes in positive and negative values, there are three different types of color charge: red, green, and blue. Anti-quarks carry anti-color charge, which is the opposite of their corresponding color charge. The term "dynamics" in chromodynamics refers to the study of how these particles interact and affect the behavior of hadrons, such as protons and neutrons. Overall, the term "chromodynamics" refers to the study of the strong nuclear force, and how it is mediated by particles with color charge.

 

Experiments to prove QCD:

1)     Deep inelastic scattering: This experiment involves firing high-energy electrons at protons and measuring the scattered electrons. By analyzing the data, scientists can extract information about the distribution of quarks and gluons inside the proton.

 

2)     Jet production: When high-energy quarks and gluons are produced in a collision, they can combine to form a narrow, collimated spray of particles called a jet. The properties of jets provide important tests of QCD, such as the strength of the strong force and the behavior of quarks and gluons at high energies.

 

3)     Heavy-ion collisions: When heavy nuclei collide at high energies, the resulting fireball of quarks and gluons is believed to form a new state of matter called the quark-gluon plasma. The properties of the quark-gluon plasma can be used to test QCD, such as the behavior of strongly interacting matter at high densities and temperatures.

 

4)     Lattice QCD: This is a numerical simulation technique that uses supercomputers to solve the equations of QCD on a discrete lattice. By comparing the results of lattice QCD calculations with experimental data, scientists can test the predictions of QCD in a controlled and systematic way.

 

5)     Tests of symmetries: QCD has several symmetries, such as chiral symmetry and flavor symmetry, that are expected to be manifest in the properties of hadrons. By measuring the masses, decay rates, and other properties of hadrons, scientists can test these symmetries and verify the predictions of QCD.

 

In conclusion, Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) is a fundamental theory in particle physics that describes the strong interactions between quarks and gluons, the building blocks of protons, neutrons, and other hadrons. Over the years, QCD has been extensively tested through a variety of experiments and observations, providing strong evidence for its validity as a theory of the strong interactions. However, many questions still remain unanswered, and ongoing experiments and theoretical developments continue to deepen our understanding of QCD and its role in the fundamental nature of the universe. With the increasing capabilities of particle accelerators and other facilities, the future of QCD research is bright, and we can expect many exciting discoveries and insights to come.

 

 

Optical Fibre

 Introduction

A thin wire made up of silica which is used to transmit signal in the form of light signal is known as optical fiber. As, instead of metal wires, fibres are used, transmission over longer distances are possible. Optical fibres are now used for fibre optic internet, tv services, telecommunications etc. 

There are different types of fibre optic network. 

1) FTTH- Fibre To The Home

Here signal is delivered directly to home. 

2) FFTB- Fibre To The Building- here signal is delivered on a shared property. One needs another cable to deliver the signal to home. 

3) FTTC- Fibre To The Curb

The signal is transmitted to the curb near home. 

Transmission in the form of light signal has many advantage over electrical transmission. 

A) Less attenuation- This means less signal loss during transmission from one end to other. 

B) High bandwidth- Means the data transfer rate is higher as compared to electrical transmission. 

C) Unlike electrical signal, light signal is immune to electromagnetic interference. 

D) As these are light signals they do not carry current hence cannot generate spark. 

Overall optical transmission is profitable, fast and safe mode of transmission.

It has some disadvantages also:-

1) Optical fibres are not flexible hence they break on too much bending. 

2) They are very expensive to install. 

3) They are not robust as wire. 

4) Optical fibres are very tender hence highly susceptible to damage during installation. 

Working principles

The principle behind light transmission through optical fibre is total internal reflection. When angle of incidence is greater than limiting angle called critical angle, the ray reflects back in the same medium, this phenomenon is known as total internal reflection. This technique of bending light in same medium is used in optical fibre. The light ray travel along the fibre. 

The fibre consist of a core and a cladding layer. In optical fibre cladding is a layer made up of material of lower refracting index, which is in close contact with core made up of higher refractive index. The cladding helps light to travel inside the core. Total internal reflection takes place at the boundary of cladding and core. In single mode fibre cladding has a refractive index of 1.444 and that of core is 1.4475. As for total internal reflection angle of incidence should be greater than critical angle therefore only light that enters the fibre within a certain range of angles can travel down the fibre. This range is called acceptance cone. 

Uses of Fibre Optic cable

1) Internet- Optical fibre is used to transfer data at very high speed. They transfer more data in lesser time as compared to copper wire. 

2) Medical field- Fibre optic cables have enormous use in medical field. Mostly they are used in endoscopy. Using optical fibre for lightening purpose during surgery reduces the number and size of incisions made. 

3) Decorations- Optical fibres are very attractive and colourful hence are largely used for decorations on various occasion. They are available on low cost and are easy to operate. 

4) Defense- They are used for wiring in SONAR, aircraft, hydrophone etc. As data transfer rate is very high in case of optical fibre therefore they are used for data transmission in high level data security in fields of military and aerospace applications. 

5) Automotive industry- Optical fibres are used in vehicles both interior and exterior. They consume less space and has good illuminating power. They are used for safety purpose also. They transport signals between different parts of the vehicle at very high speed so they can be used in airbags. 

AI:A Great Power in All Sphere of Life

 Have you ever imagined that a machine can talk, walk, dance, sing and can even think? Now it's all possible because of significant development in the field of artificial intelligence. Today many things are possible because of AI. Many unimmaginative things like driverless cars, humanoid robots, smart homes etc. have been made with the help of AI. Many prominent companies like Tesla, Google, Amazon are working continuously towards development of AI. So what is AI? Artificial intelligence is basically the reproduction of human intelligence by machine, we give algorithm and they act accordingly. Driverless cars by Tesla, home assistant and Alexa by Google and Amazon are some of its examples. AI can be of great use in medical science, space technology, agriculture etc. So let use know about implication of AI in different sphere of life.

1) Space Technology

AI is used to collect data send by satellites. It helped with solar radiation estimation data. With the help of AI scientists also keep a track of health of satellites. The data from the rover is being transmitted using AI. Rovers which are sent to moon or mars or other planets take photoes and send it to earth. These pictures help scientists in analysis of the planet.

There are many navigation satellites around earth and scientists use these satellite images to make maps. But there are a few navigation satellite around the moon or other planets. To navigate these planets NASA in collaboration with Intel developed an intelligent navigation system using AI.

A breakthrough use of AI in space technology is development of Autonomous rovers. These autobots are designed to move on rough surface of planets. They can do many things on their own without any command from the research team. They can work for an extended period without human intervention.They perform many tasks such as taking rock sample and extracting info from it, information about weather, terrain, presence of some chemicals or elements etc. They have become an important tool in recent space exploration.

source: theonebrief.com

2) Medical Science

With the advancement in technology, medical science has improved a lot. Now proper treatement of many diseases can be done with the help of AI. Earlier it was difficult to diagnose some disease but now it has become easier because of use of computer techniques to perform clinical diagnoses. With the help of computer images, every internal organ can be viewed very easily and a proper treatement can be done. Technologies such as CT scan, MRI, ultrasonography are very helpful in diagnosis of disease.

Monitoring of health became easier with many devices. Like, a medical monitor displays many parameters such as pulse, blood pressure, electrocardiograph etc. Accuracy in measurement has increased with development in electronic devices. Pulseoxymeter, thermogun, digital sphygmomanometer etc has contributed a lot towards precision and accuracy.

source: indiamart.com

AI also plays an important role in phramceutical research. Machine learning algorithms are used to analyse the viability of drugs. Mnay drug companies  employ data scientists for analysis of data produced by AI in the development of the drug. Because of involvement of smart machines efficiency increases and large amount of drugs can be produced in short time. It also help to cut down the cost of medicine at the same time enhancing its quality.

source: npr.org

3) Farming

AI has not only helped to increased the quantity but also the quality of the crop. Now the type of soil, info about nutrient content, pH etc can be detected easily using artificial language. Machines are made that can tell which type of fertilizers are needed, the soil is deprived of which nutrient etc. Locust attack is a major problem in farming. They can scrap out of the whole farm, AI with the help of satellites in advance can warn the farmers about arrival of the locusts. 

Crop health can be monitored using drones. The data recorded by drones are send to computer for analysis by data scientists. A detailed health report of the crop is then prepared by a group of experts. 

source: thomasnet.com

Farming with ancient techniques require much more time than  with modern tools. Also the yield and quality is not upto the mark. Now robots are developed which can perform many tasks starting from weed control to the harvest at much faster rate than possbible with human labour. Such robots save time and also enhance the quality of the product.

Further development in AI can help to fully automise the farming sector. Doing this can help in higher crop yield, increase precision and accuracy and  most importantly it can be of great benefit for the poor farmers which help in their upliftment.

4) Education

Studies can become more fun filled with the help of AI.  Many mobile applications have been made which teach in play way manner. Though the ancient teacher-student learning can never be replaced by any technology but still AI can have great implications in education system.

Individualised learning has increased because of AI. Now students can take test on apps, analyze their mistake, get to know about their strength and weekness, working upon which they can yield good result. This evaluation can be done at home and students will need no one to tell their week points. Each person has their own pace of doing work, such appa can help students to work at their own pace.

AI can be a great time saver for both the students and the teachers. It can help to compile marks, make corrections in the assignment and even check the exam papers(like OMR). Students can quickly find answers with the help of google assistant or Alexa. Artificial intelligence has revolutionized the education sector to a great extent.

source: indiamart.com

5) Exciting Discoveries in the Field of AI

a) Sophia

Have you heard Sofia-the first a disney cartoon series! Indeed sophia is the first humanoid robot or you can say that it is the first machine which has got a citizenship. Sophia has citizenship of Saudi Arabia. Sophia is a humanoid robot developed by Hanson Robotics. It can imitate expressions, converse on many topics, to a great extent behave like humans and can do many things. This indeed is a break through development in the feild of AI.

                                            source: wikipedia.org

b) Driverless cars and taxies

Fully automated cars have been developed which enables ride without a human driver. Robocars have various sensors to sense the surrounding. They are equipped with radar, sonar, GPS, lidar etc. Many companies like Tesla, Waymo, Nuro have developed a fully self-driving car. Waymo was the first to offer this servise to public. This technology can also be applied to trucks, buses or other heavy vehicles for an efficient transport system. This will not only save time but also fuel.

                                           source: wired.com

c) Olly

Olly is an AI assistant created by Emotech. It is similar to other assistant like Alexa or Google home but with one distinct feature. Olly has not only voice sensors but it can also sense the facial expressions. Olly can understand human expressions and dynamically starts conversating with the user. It can also make suggestions just by sensing the facial gestures of the user. This AI Assistant is very different from other voice assistants.

source: indiegogo.com

Artificial Intelligence is the driving force behind most of the recent discoveries. What we use to see in fiction can now be experienced in reality. It is one of the fastest growing technologies in the world. It can work at a very fast rate as compared to humans and chances of errors are also reduced. AI is the future of the modern world.

Wave-particles duality of light

 Properties of light had been a topic of discussion for a long time. It started back to Democritus (5th century BC) continued to Newton and ended at Maxwell and Einstein. Quantum mechanics is vast branch which incorporate quantisation of energy, wave-particle duality, the uncertainty principle etc. Here I will focus majorly on wave-particle duality of light. Now, what does this term mean? It states that every particle weather light or electron exhibit both wave and particle nature.

Source: Livescience.com

Actually, earlier some scientists believed that light shows particle nature and some believed on wave nature. But later with the work of many prominent physicists it was proved that light shows both wave and particle nature. In 1670 Isaac Newton developed corpuscular theory of light. He said that as light follows rectilinear propagation it must be composes of particles as only particles could travel in perfectly straight lines. Newton argues that reflection and refraction are possible only because light is composed of particles. At the time when Newton was confident of his corpuscular theory Robert Hooke and Christian Huygens explained the wave nature of light. According to Huygens principle ‘Each point of the wavefront is the source of a secondary disturbance and the wavelets emanating from these points spread out in all directions with the speed of wave. After this the wave nature was further proved by Thomas Young's famous double slit experiment. Polarisation of light, black body radiation could also be explained with the help of wave nature.

Source: vectorstock.com

Around 19th century the wave model was well established. But we know that wave requires a medium to propagate but light can travel through vacuum also. How is this possible? This problem was solved by James Clerk Maxwell around 1855 with the help of his electromagnetic theory of light. The changing electric and magnetic field result in the propagation of electromagnetic waves in vacuum. In 1900 Max Planck gave his theory which said that radiation emitted or absorbed occurs in the form of small packets known as quantum and energy of these packets is proportional to the frequency. He gave the equation as E=hf where he is plank's constant(6.626×10^-34 J-sec). By using plank’s quantum theory Einstein in 1905 successfully explained the photoelectric effect. When a light of certain frequency is allowed to fall on a metal of low ionization energy the electrons emitted known as photoelectrons and this phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect.

Observation given by:

1) On increasing the frequency of light kinetic energy of electrons increase.

2) On increasing the intensity of light number of photoelectrons increases however kinetic energy remains constant.

This experiment showed that light consist of particle. These particles are called photon. Einstein was also awarded Noble prize for discovering photoelectric effect. Later in 1924 Louis-victor de Broglie said that all matter has wave nature. He gave the formula ƛ=h/p where p is momentum. For this he was awarded with noble prize in 1929.

Source: semestets.in

With the efforts of prominent scientists like Newton, Huygens, Young, Bohr, Plank, Maxwell, de-Broglie, Einstein etc, it was proved that light shows both particle and wave nature. To verify one phenomena we need particle nature and for another we need wave nature. Together they explain all the phenomenon of light.

Black Holes

 Black holes have fascinated scientists from the early 18th century. The term black hole was coined in 1969 by American scientist John Wheeler. A black hole is a dense object from which even light cannot escape. A star after supernova explosion turns into a black hole. But there is a condition. Only star which has mass more than one and a half times the mass of the sun will turn into a black hole otherwise it will become a white dwarf or a neutron star. This mass is known as the Chandrasekhar limit, after the name of its discoverer Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar. Black holes are not visible because the light could not escape the strong gravitational field and would not reach us. But still its presence would be felt because of the gravitational attraction on nearby objects.

   source: Wallpapers Vista

There are two parts of a black hole the event horizon and the singularity. The boundary of a black hole is called the event horizon. The central, most dense part is called singularity. Cygnus X-1 was the first identified black hole. The nearest known black hole is about 1000 light years away. Though most on it are theoretical but implementation of equations of General Relativity was first done by Karl Schwarzschild in 1916. The ‘No hair theorem’ explains that the information about the body must be lost only its mass and rate of rotation can be calculated. Stephen hawking showed that large black holes emit slow radiation and slow ones emit a large radiation because of which they glow. This thermal radiation because of quantum effects is known as Hawking radiation.

source: wallup.net

The first picture of a black hole was taken in 2019 using 8 telescopes around the world known as Event horizon telescope with the effort of more than 200 scientists. This black hole was spotted at the centre of M87(Messier 87) about 55 million light years away. The algorithm that created the first image was developed by Katie Bouman. The mysteries of black hole have not been fully solved. But scientists around the world are working continuously in revealing it and consequently revealing the beginning of the universe.

source: cutewallpaper.org

Optical Lattice Clock

 Time is very important factor for everyone. Sometimes a few seconds is a lot time to reach the milestone. Time is a storm in which we all are lost. So first of all let us know the standard unit of time and its defenition. The SI unit of time is second. But what is '1 second'? The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom. There are many devices to measure time. In earlier times, Sand clocks, water clocks and Sun dials were used. Now we have quartz watches, atomic clock, smart watch etc. But the most accurate of all the clocks is Optical Lattice Clock. 

Optical Lattice Clock is designed by Jérôme Lodewyck and his team at the Paris observatory. It is the most accurate clock and could 'redefine the second'. The cesium fountain clock operate about 1x10^-16 relative precision whereas optical atomic clock has a relative precision of 2.5x10^-19. It is accurate to within 1 minute every 18,000 million years. It uses laser beams and interference phenomena. Like, it is formed by the interference pattern of two laser light beams that are propagating in precisely opposite directions through the same medium. A laser is used to excite, high-frequency transition in the strontium atom to reach upto a standard frequency that provides extremely precise measurment of time.

The new clock is located at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
in Boulder, Colorado, USA. "An inch of time is an inch of gold but you can't buy that inch of time with an inch of gold". Therefore we should have clock which measures time with the highest precision and now we have one! 

Quantum Stealth

 Remember the invisibility cloak from Harry Potter, after wearing which he becomes invisible. We have seen or heard about invisibility in fantasies or in fiction but now its possible. Yes, you heard it right. Now it’s possible for human beings to camouflage themselves. A material called Quantum stealth made it possible. Quantum stealth is based on light bending technology.

   

Quantum stealth is developed by Hyperstealth Biotechnology corp. whose CEO is Guy Cramer. Hyperstealth found in 1990 is a Canadian company which manufacture military camouflage uniforms. Quantum stealth is one of the materials developed by Hyperstealth for military to make them invisible. Now, how actually this happens that something become invisible? To know this, first we should know that how are we able to see something. We can see an object when the light reflected from that object enters our eyes. This makes a real inverted image of that object on our retina which is further erected by brain. So, we see objects when light ray is reflected from it. What will happen if light not get reflected? Of course, we will not be able to see that object. This principle was used to develop quantum stealth. It bends the light wave around the target thus making it covert. It even makes the shadows invisible. This material also works against IR scopes and Thermal optics.

This material is not available and will not be in near future for general public. This technology is only made for military purpose. But I wish that some technologies be developed for commercial purpose also, so that I can also get camouflaged and eat my sister’s chocolate 🤣.

Luminiferous Ether

 By hearing the word 'Ether' the most common thing come to us that it is a functional group in organic chemistry. A few people percieve ether in a different way. Actually in Theory of relativity ether or aether is a space filling substance. It was assumed that ether will act as transmission medium for the transmission of electromagnetic or gravitational forces. In General theory of relativity Albert Einstein called gravitational fields as aether. According to theorist like Einstein, de broglie, Maxwell and others there might be a medium with physical properties filling empty space, an ether.

Physicist at the end of 19th century defined ether as quasi-rigid solid. It was called quasi rigid because it had all properties of solid except that it can vibrate. It is also called luminiferous ether which means light carrying.Two American scientists Mischelson and Morley build a device called Interferometer to detect the presence of ether. They done their experiment several times but was not able to prove the existence of ether. In 1905 after the acceptance of Albert einstein's special theory of relativity, the ether hypothesis was discarded. It was thought unnecessary in terms of Einstein's assumption that speed of any electromagnetic wave is a universal constant. Now ether theory is not accepted. The electromagnetic fields are independent which are not reducible to anything else. Electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical waves which does not require any medium to travel.

Super Highways in Space

There are super highways all around the world for superfast travel but what if there will be a super highway in space! Now this 'will be' is changed to 'is'. Astronomers from Serbia have discovered a new super highway network to travel through the solar system. Now deep space mission will become easier because of this new network of routes that would let probes to travel at quicker pace. The super highway route between Jupiter and Neptune can cut down the travel time to one decade and 100 astronomical units in less than a century.

Due to this discovery it will become easier for different space organisations to have deep space missions. Now many probe can be send to Jovian planets for detailed research. These super highways are linked to the gravitational forces at work and are known as celestial autobahn or celestial highway. These routes are arch like structure that extends from asteroid belt to Uranus and beyond. In order to understand how these archs are interconnected, a team of researchers are examining the orbits of various celestial bodies including comets, meteorides, moons and planets.

If scientists successfully send probe and spacecrafts through these highways it will not only save time but also the fuels which are used in these spacecrafts. Indeed it will take time to fully understand these space manifolds but I am sure that the great minds on earth will solve every mystry about it. Space and knowledge both are endless!😃

Hyperloop

 We live in a busy world where everyone want to finish all the work as fast as possible. Most of the time we have to travel different place to accomplish our work. With globalisation we not only have to travel in our country but sometimes we have to go to other countries as well. Till now the fastest mode of transport we use is aeroplane. But science and technology is endless, the more we explore, the more things we discover. The fastest mode of transport that we know is aeroplane but if every thing goes well we will have faster mode of transportation and this is the idea of HYPERLOOP. 

 Hyperloop is a proposed mode of ground transport which can travel at over 700 miles an hour. The idea was first given by Rober goddard but it was first publicly mentioned by Elon musk and the design is released by joint efforts of Tesla and SpaceX. Like trains run on tracks, hyperloop technology will use low pressure pods to run on. As the speed increases frictional force will also increase therefore concept of evacuated or partially evacuated tubes was proposed. Instead of tracks these will be magnetically levitating trains. Because of these features it can easily achieve hypersonic speed.

If the idea will be successful it will hardly take 30 minutes to travel from chennai to Bengaluru and one can reach Pune from Mumbai in just 20 minutes! A number of roots have been proposed for hyperloop system in the countries like USA, India, UK, Russia etc. Vrgin hyperloop came to India in 2017 and has been working with Maharashtra Government to build hyperloop pod between Mumbai and pune. 

The Smallest Particle: Quarks

 We have heard that electron, proton and neutrons are the smallest or fundamental particles which constitutes the building blocks of every element. But there exist still smaller particles which makes up  neutron and proton. These smallest particles of the universe discovered till date are known as quarks.

The word quarks  was first used by James Joyce as 'Three quarks for Muster Mark! ' Quarks come in three kinds of colour charge red, green and blue. Quarks are not actually of these colours. It is just a way of categorizing them. Therefore the quantum field threory which deals with quarks is known as Quantum Chromodynamics(QCD). There are six types of quarks- up(u), down(d), top(t), bottom(b), charm(c), and strange (s). Protons are made up of 2 up and 1 down quark whereas neutrons are made up of 1 up and 2 down quarks. Up quark has a charge of +2/3 and down quark has a charge of -1/3.

Quarks always sticks together as the attraction between quarks strengthens as they are pulled apart unlike the EM force which weakens when pulled apart. As EM force is mediated by photons, the strong nuclear force is mediated by Gluons. Hence the strong nuclear force is generated by exchange of gluons between quarks of different color charge. The quantum physics is becoming more complicated due to discoveries of so many particles and there are many more to be discovered!